Tried by War

1. Lincoln's Evolution as Commander-in-Chief

"Lincoln was not a 'natural strategist.' He worked hard to master this subject, just as he had done to become a lawyer."

Self-taught military expert. Lincoln entered the presidency with minimal military experience but quickly immersed himself in military strategy and operations. He devoured books on military history and tactics, spent countless hours in the War Department telegraph office, and engaged in detailed discussions with his generals.

Hands-on leadership. As the war progressed, Lincoln became increasingly involved in military decision-making. He issued direct orders to generals, proposed strategic plans, and even personally scouted locations for military operations. This hands-on approach was driven by necessity, as many of his early generals proved hesitant or incompetent.

Learning from mistakes. Lincoln's military acumen grew through trial and error. He learned to balance political considerations with military necessity, to coordinate multiple theaters of war, and to identify and promote capable commanders. His evolution as commander-in-chief was crucial to the Union's eventual victory.

2. Strategic Shift: From Limited War to Total War

"By 1864, if not earlier, the abolition of slavery was added to preservation of the Union."

Initial limited goals. At the war's outset, Lincoln's primary objective was to preserve the Union, with little intention of interfering with slavery where it already existed. This approach aimed to maintain support from border states and potential Southern Unionists.

Gradual escalation. As the conflict dragged on, Lincoln recognized the need for more aggressive measures. This included:

• Targeting Confederate resources, including slave labor
• Implementing a naval blockade
• Authorizing scorched-earth tactics in enemy territory

Total war concept. By 1864, Lincoln had fully embraced a strategy of total war, aimed at not just defeating Confederate armies but also destroying the South's capacity and will to fight. This shift was exemplified by Grant's relentless campaigns in Virginia and Sherman's March to the Sea.

3. The Emancipation Proclamation: A Military Necessity

"I have never written you, or spoken to you, in greater kindness of feeling than now, nor with a fuller purpose to sustain you...But you must act."

Strategic considerations. Lincoln framed the Emancipation Proclamation as a war measure, using his authority as commander-in-chief. It served multiple strategic purposes:

• Depriving the Confederacy of slave labor
• Encouraging slave escapes and rebellions
• Providing a new source of manpower for the Union army
• Discouraging foreign intervention on behalf of the Confederacy

Political balancing act. Lincoln carefully timed the proclamation's release to follow a Union military victory (Antietam) to avoid appearing desperate. He also initially exempted Union-held territories and border states to maintain their support.

Transformative impact. The proclamation fundamentally changed the nature of the war, making the abolition of slavery an explicit war aim. This shift galvanized support among abolitionists and helped maintain the moral high ground for the Union cause internationally.

4. Lincoln's Hands-On Approach to Military Strategy

"Lincoln was the only president in American history whose entire administration was bounded by war."

Direct involvement. Lincoln frequently intervened in military planning and operations, often to the frustration of his generals. He proposed strategic plans, suggested tactical maneuvers, and even calculated troop strengths and logistics.

Key strategic insights. Lincoln grasped several crucial strategic concepts:

• The importance of coordinated offensives across multiple theaters
• The need to target enemy armies rather than geographic objectives
• The value of relentless pressure and pursuit of defeated forces

Personal reconnaissance. On several occasions, Lincoln personally visited the front lines to gather information and boost morale. He observed battles, inspected fortifications, and met with soldiers and officers to gain firsthand knowledge of the war's progress.

5. The Search for Competent Generals

"If I had done as my Washington friends, who fight battles with their tongues instead of swords far from the enemy, demanded of me, Grant...would never have been heard from again."

Revolving door of commanders. Lincoln cycled through several top commanders in the Eastern theater, including McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, and Meade. Each appointment was marked by initial hope followed by frustration with their caution or incompetence.

Identifying talent. Despite setbacks, Lincoln demonstrated an ability to recognize and promote effective leaders. He stood by Grant after early controversies and promoted Sherman and Sheridan based on their aggressive and effective tactics.

Balancing political and military considerations. Lincoln had to navigate complex political waters in his general appointments, balancing:

• Professional military expertise
• Political affiliations and connections
• Public opinion and media pressure
• The need for both defensive and offensive capabilities

6. Coordinated Offensives: Lincoln's Grand Strategy

"Lincoln grasped sooner than many of his generals the strategic concept of 'concentration in time.'"

Simultaneous pressure. Lincoln consistently pushed for coordinated offensives across multiple theaters to prevent the Confederacy from shifting forces to threatened areas. This strategy aimed to overcome the South's advantage of interior lines.

Key elements of the strategy:

• Naval blockade to strangle Southern economy
• Control of the Mississippi to split the Confederacy
• Capture of Atlanta to disrupt Southern logistics and morale
• Relentless pressure on Lee's army in Virginia

Overcoming resistance. Lincoln often had to prod reluctant generals to implement this strategy, emphasizing the need for aggressive action and coordination between different commands.

7. Political Challenges and Public Opinion Management

"Lincoln was not necessarily averse to a more thorough postwar policy. But he insisted on his 10 percent plan as a wartime measure to weaken the rebellion by weaning away as many of its former supporters as possible."

Balancing act. Throughout the war, Lincoln had to navigate complex political terrain, balancing:

• Radical Republicans pushing for harsher measures against the South
• Conservative Democrats opposing emancipation and calling for peace
• Border state Unionists wary of anti-slavery policies
• International opinion, particularly in Britain and France

Public communications. Lincoln skillfully used speeches, letters, and proclamations to shape public opinion and explain his policies. He often framed controversial decisions in terms of military necessity to broaden their appeal.

Reconstruction planning. Even as the war continued, Lincoln began laying the groundwork for reunification, proposing lenient terms to encourage Southern states to rejoin the Union.

8. The Importance of Military Technology and Innovation

"Lincoln functioned at times as chief of ordnance, ordering the hidebound Brig. Gen. James Ripley, who officially held that position until the president forced his retirement in September 1863, to test new weapons offered by inventors."

Personal interest. Lincoln took a keen interest in new military technologies, personally testing weapons and encouraging innovation. His support was crucial for the adoption of:

• Repeating rifles
• Ironclad warships
• Observation balloons
• Improved artillery

Overcoming resistance. The president often had to override conservative military officers who were skeptical of new technologies. His insistence on adopting these innovations gave the Union a significant advantage in firepower and logistics.

Impact on strategy. New technologies influenced Lincoln's strategic thinking, enabling:

• More mobile and aggressive infantry tactics
• Improved naval operations, including river warfare
• Enhanced reconnaissance and communications

9. Lincoln's Constitutional Expansion of Executive Power

"Lincoln maintained that 'as commander-in-chief of the army and navy, in time of war...I have a right to take any measure which may best subdue the enemy.'"

Broad interpretation. Lincoln adopted an expansive view of executive war powers, arguing that the Constitution's commander-in-chief clause gave him authority to take extraordinary measures to preserve the Union.

Controversial actions. Using this interpretation, Lincoln:

• Suspended habeas corpus
• Imposed military rule in certain areas
• Authorized the arrest of suspected Confederate sympathizers
• Issued the Emancipation Proclamation without congressional approval

Long-term impact. Lincoln's actions set precedents for expanded executive power in wartime that continue to be debated and invoked by subsequent presidents.

10. The Final Push: Grant, Sherman, and Ultimate Victory

"Grant has the bear by the hind leg while Sherman takes off the hide."

Aggressive leadership. In Grant and Sherman, Lincoln finally found generals who shared his strategic vision of relentless pressure on the enemy. Their campaigns in 1864-65 embodied Lincoln's desire for coordinated, aggressive action.

Key elements of the final strategy:

• Grant's Overland Campaign: Continuous engagement with Lee's army
• Sherman's Atlanta Campaign and March to the Sea: Destroying Southern infrastructure and will to fight
• Sheridan's Shenandoah Valley Campaign: Eliminating Confederate threat to Washington

Political impact. The success of these campaigns, particularly Sherman's capture of Atlanta, was crucial in securing Lincoln's re-election in 1864 and maintaining public support for the war effort.

Decisive victory. The combined pressure of these campaigns finally broke Confederate resistance, leading to Lee's surrender at Appomattox and the war's end. Lincoln's strategic vision, realized through capable generals, had achieved its goal of preserving the Union and ending slavery.

Last updated: July 25, 2024