The Girls of Atomic City

Oak Ridge: The Secret City That Built the Atomic Bomb

"Everything will be taken care of . . ."

A city from scratch. In 1942, the U.S. government secretly acquired 59,000 acres in rural Tennessee to build a massive industrial complex for the Manhattan Project. Overnight, farmland was transformed into a bustling city of 75,000 people, complete with factories, housing, and infrastructure. The site, known as Clinton Engineer Works (CEW) or Oak Ridge, was chosen for its isolation, access to electricity from nearby dams, and proximity to rail lines.

Secret mission. Oak Ridge's sole purpose was to enrich uranium for the world's first atomic bomb. The city housed three main facilities:

• Y-12: Used electromagnetic separation to enrich uranium
• K-25: Used gaseous diffusion for uranium enrichment
• X-10: Served as a pilot plant for plutonium production

Most workers, including thousands of young women recruited from across the country, had no idea what they were working on. They were told only that their efforts would help end the war.

Women's Crucial Role in the Manhattan Project

"The most ambitious war project in military history rested squarely on the shoulders of tens of thousands of ordinary people, many of them young women."

Unexpected workforce. Women made up a significant portion of Oak Ridge's workforce, taking on roles traditionally held by men. They operated complex machinery, performed chemical analyses, and crunched numbers essential to the project's success. Many were recent high school graduates from rural areas, attracted by good wages and the promise of meaningful war work.

Key contributions:

• Calutron operators at Y-12, adjusting dials to separate uranium isotopes
• Statisticians and mathematicians tracking production rates
• Chemists analyzing uranium samples
• Leak testers at K-25, ensuring the integrity of miles of pipes

Despite their critical roles, women faced discrimination in pay and advancement opportunities. However, their presence transformed Oak Ridge from a mere industrial site into a functioning community, bringing a sense of normalcy to the secret city.

The Scientific Race to Harness Nuclear Power

"Fission. That's what Lise and Frisch decided to call it."

From theory to reality. The Manhattan Project was born from groundbreaking scientific discoveries in nuclear physics. Key milestones included:

• 1938: Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch explain nuclear fission
• 1939: Albert Einstein writes to President Roosevelt about the potential for an atomic bomb
• 1942: Enrico Fermi achieves the first controlled nuclear chain reaction in Chicago

Competing methods. Oak Ridge employed multiple uranium enrichment techniques simultaneously due to uncertainty about which would be most effective:

• Electromagnetic separation (Y-12)
• Gaseous diffusion (K-25)
• Thermal diffusion (S-50)

This parallel approach, while expensive and resource-intensive, ultimately succeeded in producing enough enriched uranium for the Hiroshima bomb by August 1945.

Secrecy, Security, and Social Dynamics in a Closed Community

"What you see here, What you do here, What you hear here, When you leave here, Let it stay here."

Culture of silence. Oak Ridge operated under intense secrecy. Residents were forbidden from discussing their work, even with spouses. The city didn't appear on maps, and mail was heavily censored. Billboards and posters constantly reminded workers to stay quiet about their jobs.

Unique social environment:

• Limited outside contact
• Diverse population thrown together
• Emphasis on recreation to boost morale (dances, sports leagues, clubs)
• Rapid formation of relationships and marriages

Despite restrictions, a vibrant community formed. The shared sense of purpose and isolation fostered strong bonds among residents, many of whom chose to stay in Oak Ridge after the war.

Racial Segregation and Discrimination at Oak Ridge

"It is the first community I have ever seen with slums that were deliberately planned."

Separate and unequal. Despite its modern mission, Oak Ridge maintained strict racial segregation reflective of the Jim Crow South:

• African American workers lived in substandard "hutments"
• Families were often separated, with no housing for black children
• Limited job opportunities, mostly in janitorial or construction roles
• Segregated facilities (schools, recreation, transportation)

Persistence in the face of adversity. Black workers, like Kattie Strickland, found ways to adapt and build community despite discrimination. They formed social groups, organized religious services, and advocated for better conditions. However, significant improvements in housing and opportunities for African Americans in Oak Ridge wouldn't come until after the war.

The Human Cost of Developing the Atomic Bomb

"Now we are all sons of bitches."

Ethical dilemmas. The rush to develop the atomic bomb led to ethical compromises:

• Displacement of thousands of Tennessee residents to build Oak Ridge
• Dangerous working conditions and exposure to radioactive materials
• Human radiation experiments conducted without informed consent

Personal toll. Workers grappled with the implications of their work after learning its true nature:

• Pride in helping end the war
• Horror at the destruction caused in Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• Guilt over civilian deaths
• Anxiety about the future of nuclear weapons

The quote, attributed to Kenneth Bainbridge after the Trinity test, encapsulates the complex emotions many scientists and workers felt about their role in creating such a devastating weapon.

Post-War Legacy and Ethical Dilemmas of the Manhattan Project

"Oak Ridge is a city without a past not destined for a future."

Uncertain future. After the war, Oak Ridge faced an identity crisis. The secret city had to transition from a military installation to a civilian community:

• Population dropped from 75,000 to about 30,000
• Some facilities closed, others repurposed for peaceful nuclear research
• Struggle to create a normal town government and infrastructure

Ongoing debates:

• Ethical implications of using the atomic bomb
• Environmental and health impacts of nuclear research and production
• Role of scientists in military projects
• Proper way to commemorate Oak Ridge's history

Oak Ridge's legacy remains complex. The city played a crucial role in ending World War II but also ushered in the atomic age and its associated dangers. Today, Oak Ridge National Laboratory continues to be at the forefront of scientific research, while the community grapples with how to tell its unique story to future generations.