The Anxious Generation

1. The Great Rewiring: How smartphones transformed childhood

Gen Z became the first generation in history to go through puberty with a portal in their pockets that called them away from the people nearby and into an alternative universe that was exciting, addictive, unstable, and—as I will show—unsuitable for children and adolescents.

Unprecedented shift. Between 2010 and 2015, a radical transformation occurred in how children and adolescents spent their time and attention. This period, dubbed "The Great Rewiring," marked the transition from a play-based childhood to a phone-based one. As smartphones became ubiquitous, young people's social lives, entertainment, and even identity formation moved increasingly online.

Global mental health crisis. This shift coincided with a sharp rise in anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues among adolescents, particularly girls, across many developed nations. The timing and widespread nature of this crisis point to the adoption of smartphones and social media as a primary cause, rather than local factors like politics or economics.

Sensitive period disrupted. The Great Rewiring occurred during a critical developmental stage for many adolescents. This timing may have amplified its negative effects, as the brain during puberty is especially plastic and vulnerable to environmental influences.

2. Foundational harms: Social deprivation, sleep loss, attention fragmentation, and addiction

When we gave children and adolescents smartphones in the early 2010s, we gave companies the ability to apply variable-ratio reinforcement schedules all day long, training them like rats during their most sensitive years of brain rewiring.

Social deprivation. Despite being more "connected" than ever, young people report feeling increasingly lonely and isolated. Face-to-face interactions, crucial for developing social skills and emotional intelligence, have significantly decreased.

Sleep disruption. The 24/7 accessibility of smartphones has led to:

• Delayed bedtimes
• Reduced sleep quality
• Increased daytime fatigue
• Negative impacts on mental health and academic performance

Attention fragmentation. Constant notifications and the allure of endless content have trained young minds to expect and seek constant stimulation, making sustained focus increasingly difficult.

• Reduced ability to engage in deep work or reading
• Increased anxiety and FOMO (fear of missing out)
• Potential long-term impacts on cognitive development

Addiction by design. Many popular apps and platforms use psychological techniques to maximize "engagement," often at the cost of users' wellbeing. Features like infinite scroll, autoplay, and gamified social interactions exploit vulnerabilities in human psychology, making it difficult for users, especially young ones, to regulate their usage.

3. Girls' vulnerability: Visual comparison and relational aggression online

Instagram is particularly bad for girls: "Teens blame Instagram for increases in the rate of anxiety and depression. . . . This reaction was unprompted and consistent across all groups." The researchers also noted that "social comparison is worse" on Instagram than on rival apps.

Amplified social comparison. Visual platforms like Instagram create an environment of constant comparison, particularly harmful to developing adolescents:

• Unrealistic beauty standards through filters and editing
• Pressure to present a perfect life
• Quantified popularity through likes and follower counts

Relational aggression. Social media provides new avenues for bullying and social exclusion, which tend to affect girls more severely:

• Cyberbullying and public shaming
• Exclusionary group chats or events
• Pressure to maintain online presence and relationships

Emotional contagion. The hyperconnected nature of social media can amplify negative emotions:

• Rapid spread of anxiety and depressive content
• Echo chambers reinforcing unhealthy thought patterns
• Difficulty in escaping toxic social dynamics

4. Boys' disengagement: Retreat into virtual worlds and pornography

Boys have followed a different path through the Great Rewiring from girls, on average. Girls have long had higher rates of internalizing disorders than boys, and as I showed in chapter 1, that gap increased when adolescent life moved onto smartphones and social media.

Video game immersion. Many boys have found refuge in online gaming worlds:

• Provides sense of achievement and social connection
• Can lead to problematic use or addiction in some cases
• May interfere with real-world skill development and relationships

Pornography exposure. Easy access to online pornography is reshaping boys' understanding of sexuality and relationships:

• Unrealistic expectations about sex and bodies
• Potential for addiction and desensitization
• May interfere with motivation to pursue real romantic relationships

Declining real-world engagement. As boys invest more time in virtual pursuits, many are showing decreased interest in:

• Academic achievement
• Career preparation
• Face-to-face social interactions
• Physical activities and risk-taking

5. Overprotection in real life, underprotection online: The parenting paradox

We decided that the real world was so full of dangers that children should not be allowed to explore it without adult supervision, even though the risks to children from crime, violence, drunk drivers, and most other sources have dropped steeply since the 1990s.

Safetyism in real life. Since the 1980s, there's been a trend toward increasing supervision and risk aversion in childrearing:

• Reduced independent play and exploration
• Fewer opportunities for children to develop resilience and problem-solving skills
• Potential contribution to increased anxiety in children

Digital wild west. In contrast to real-world overprotection, many parents have been unprepared or unable to adequately supervise their children's online activities:

• Exposure to age-inappropriate content
• Vulnerability to online predators and cyberbullying
• Difficulty in monitoring rapidly changing digital landscapes

Misaligned protection. This paradox has created a situation where children are sheltered from manageable real-world risks while being exposed to potentially more serious online dangers.

6. Antifragility: Why children need risky play for healthy development

Children express their desires to play, to attune with others, and to learn socially in different ways throughout the long cultural apprenticeship of their slow-growth childhood and their fast-growth puberty. Healthy brain development depends on getting the right experiences at the right age and in the right order.

Concept of antifragility. Just as bones and muscles grow stronger through stress, children's psychological resilience develops through facing and overcoming challenges:

• Minor setbacks and failures build problem-solving skills
• Controlled risk-taking develops confidence and risk assessment abilities
• Social conflicts teach conflict resolution and empathy

Types of beneficial risky play:

• Heights (climbing trees, playground structures)
• Speed (running, biking, sledding)
• Tools (using hammers, knives under supervision)
• Elements (playing with fire, water)
• Rough-and-tumble play (wrestling, play fighting)
• "Getting lost" (exploring independently)

Consequences of play deprivation. The shift away from free, risky play may contribute to:

• Increased anxiety and fear of the world
• Reduced ability to assess and manage risks
• Decreased physical coordination and confidence

7. Spiritual degradation: How constant connectivity erodes meaning and community

A phone-based life generally pulls people downward. It changes the way we think, feel, judge, and relate to others. It is incompatible with many of the behaviors that religious and spiritual communities practice, some of which have been shown to improve happiness, well-being, trust, and group cohesion.

Loss of sacred space and time. The always-on nature of digital life erodes traditional boundaries:

• Difficulty in creating uninterrupted time for reflection or connection
• Blurring of work/life balance
• Reduced engagement in communal rituals and practices

Fragmentation of attention and relationships. Constant connectivity can lead to:

• Shallow, transactional interactions replacing deep connections
• Difficulty in being fully present in any moment or relationship
• Reduced capacity for empathy and deep listening

Erosion of meaning-making. The flood of information and opinions can overwhelm personal reflection:

• Challenge in developing coherent personal narratives or beliefs
• Increased vulnerability to external validation and influence
• Difficulty in finding stillness and engaging in contemplative practices

8. Four key reforms: Delaying smartphones, social media, and restoring independence

There are four main ways that governments and tech companies could improve the virtual world for adolescents.

Delay smartphone adoption. Recommend waiting until high school (around age 14) before giving children smartphones:

• Reduces early exposure to addictive design and content
• Allows more time for real-world social skill development
• Preserves childhood independence and play

Postpone social media use. Set a minimum age of 16 for social media accounts:

• Protects younger teens during sensitive developmental periods
• Allows for greater emotional maturity before navigating online social dynamics
• Reduces exposure to harmful comparison and validation-seeking behaviors

Create phone-free schools. Implement policies to keep smartphones out of classrooms and potentially school grounds:

• Improves focus and academic performance
• Encourages face-to-face social interaction
• Reduces cyberbullying and social media drama during school hours

Increase real-world independence. Encourage parents and communities to allow children more unsupervised time and autonomy:

• Supports development of problem-solving skills and confidence
• Provides opportunities for healthy risk-taking and play
• Counteracts the trend of overprotection and safetyism

9. Collective action: How parents, schools, and policymakers can create change

If we can understand the nature of collective action problems, we can push for legislation that is targeted at breaking traps and changing incentives. If we act collectively, we can roll back the phone-based childhood and restore, to some degree, a healthier play-based childhood.

Parental coordination. Parents can work together to implement healthier technology norms:

• Form agreements with other families about phone and social media use
• Create tech-free social opportunities for children
• Share strategies for managing screen time and online safety

School policies. Educational institutions can take a leading role:

• Implement phone-free policies during school hours
• Increase opportunities for free play and physical activity
• Educate students and parents about healthy technology use

Legislative action. Policymakers can create frameworks to protect children online:

• Implement and enforce age verification for social media and other platforms
• Regulate addictive design practices in apps marketed to children
• Update neglect laws to allow for more childhood independence

Cultural shift. Broader societal changes can support healthier childhood:

• Normalize and celebrate offline activities and achievements
• Create more opportunities for community engagement and volunteerism
• Foster intergenerational connections and mentorship

Last updated: September 25, 2024